About 2.5 million persons in the US had hepatitis C between 2017 and 2020. Guidelines from the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD) and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) on management of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection were updated in 2023.

View Figure 1: Treatment of Hepatitis C Virus Infection in Treatment-Naive Adults

View Table 3: Some Drug Interactions with DAAs for HCV Infection

The severity and rapid spread of COVID-19 (caused by SARS-CoV-2) have raised questions about the use of some drugs in patients with the disease and whether currently available drugs could be effective in treating it. Definitive answers are lacking, but some recommendations can be made. For additional information on specific drugs, see our table Some Drugs Being Considered for Treatment of COVID-19.

View the Table: Treatments Considered for COVID-19

The severity and rapid spread of COVID-19 (caused by SARS-CoV-2) have raised questions about the use of some drugs in patients with the disease and whether currently available drugs could be effective in treating it. Definitive answers are lacking, but some recommendations can be made. For additional information on specific drugs, see our table Some Drugs Being Considered for Treatment of COVID-19.

The FDA has approved Zepatier (Merck), a fixed-dose combination of two direct-acting antiviral agents — elbasvir, an NS5A inhibitor, and grazoprevir, an NS3/4A protease inhibitor — for oral treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1 or 4 infection.

Harvoni, a once-daily fixed-dose combination of the direct-acting antiviral agents ledipasvir and sofosbuvir approved by the FDA in 2014 for treatment of hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1 infection,1 has now been approved for use in patients infected with HCV genotype 4, 5, or 6, and in patients co-infected with HCV and HIV-1. A 12-week course of treatment with Harvoni plus ribavirin has also been approved as an alternative to 24 weeks of Harvoni alone for treatment-experienced, cirrhotic patients with HCV genotype 1 infection.

HCV genotypes 4, 5, and 6 are responsible for <2% of HCV cases in the US and Canada. They are more prevalent in the Middle East, North Africa, and Central sub-Saharan Africa (genotype 4), Southern sub-Saharan Africa (genotype 5), and Southeast Asia (genotype 6).2

In two open-label trials (both summarized in the package insert), 44 patients infected with HCV genotype 4, 41 patients with genotype 5, and 25 patients with genotype 6 received 12 weeks of treatment with ledipasvir/sofosbuvir.3 The rates of sustained virologic response 12 weeks after stopping treatment (SVR12) were 93%, 93%, and 96% in patients infected with HCV genotypes 4, 5, and 6, respectively.

In a single-arm trial (ION-4), 335 patients co-infected with HIV-1 and HCV genotype 1 (98%) or 4 (2%) received 12 weeks of treatment with ledipasvir/sofosbuvir. An SVR12 was achieved in 322 patients (96%), including 94% of 67 cirrhotic patients and 97% of 185 treatment-experienced patients.4

In a randomized, double-blind trial (SIRIUS), 154 treatment-experienced patients with HCV genotype 1 infection and cirrhosis who had not responded to peginterferon plus ribavirin with and without a protease inhibitor received either ledipasvir/sofosbuvir plus ribavirin 1000-1200 mg daily for 12 weeks or ledipasvir/sofosbuvir without ribavirin for 24 weeks. An SVR12 was achieved in 74 of 77 patients (96%) in the 12-week arm and in 75 of 77 patients (97%) in the 24-week arm.5

1. A combination of ledipasvir and sofosbuvir (Harvoni) for hepatitis C. Med Lett Drugs Ther 2014; 56:111.
2. JP Messina et al. Global distribution and prevalence of hepatitis C virus genotypes. Hepatology 2015; 61:77.
3. EJ Gane et al. Efficacy of ledipasvir and sofosbuvir, with or without ribavirin, for 12 weeks in patients with HCV genotype 3 or 6 infection. Gastroenterology 2015; 149:1454.
4. S Naggie et al. Ledipasvir and sofosbuvir for HCV in patients coinfected with HIV-1. N Engl J Med 2015; 373:705.
5. M Bourlière et al. Ledipasvir-sofosbuvir with or without ribavirin to treat patients with HCV genotype 1 infection and cirrhosis non-responsive to previous protease-inhibitor therapy: a randomised, double-blind, phase 2 trial (SIRIUS). Lancet Infect Dis 2015; 15:397.

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The FDA has approved Technivie (Abbvie), a fixed-dose combination of the direct-acting antiviral agents ombitasvir and paritaprevir and the pharmacokinetic enhancer ritonavir, for oral treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 4 infection in patients without cirrhosis. It is indicated for use in combination with ribavirin. Ombitasvir/paritaprevir/ritonavir copackaged with dasabuvir, an HCV RNA polymerase inhibitor that has little activity against HCV genotype 4, is approved as Viekira Pak for treatment of HCV genotype 1 infection.1

HCV genotype 4 is uncommon in the US and Canada. It is the most prevalent strain of HCV in Central sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa, and the Middle East.2 Technivie plus ribavirin was the first all-oral treatment approved for treatment of HCV genotype 4. Ledipasvir/sofosbuvir (Harvoni)3 was also recently approved for this indication; it does not require coadministration with ribavirin and can be used in patients with or without cirrhosis. Its use for this and other new indications will be reviewed in a future issue.

FDA approval of Technivie was based on an open-label trial (PEARL-I) in 86 treatment-naive and 49 treatment-experienced non-cirrhotic patients with HCV genotype 4 infection. Treatment-naive patients were randomized to receive Technivie with or without ribavirin for 12 weeks; all treatment-experienced patients received the combination plus ribavirin for 12 weeks. The rate of sustained virologic response 12 weeks after stopping treatment (SVR12), the primary endpoint, was 91% (40/44) in treatment-naive patients not receiving ribavirin and was 100% in both treatment-naive (42/42) and treatment-experienced (49/49) patients receiving the combination plus ribavirin.4

Adverse effects observed with Technivie in the clinical trial included asthenia, fatigue, nausea, insomnia, pruritus, and skin reactions. Like Viekira Pak, Technivie has been associated with serious, sometimes fatal cases of hepatic decompensation and is contraindicated in patients with moderate to severe (Child-Pugh B/C) hepatic impairment.5 It is also contraindicated in patients taking ethinyl estradiol (because of a risk of ALT elevation), CYP3A4 inducers such as rifampin, or certain sensitive CYP3A4 substrates such as midazolam or simvastatin.6

Each Technivie tablet contains 12.5 mg of ombitasvir, 75 mg of paritaprevir, and 50 mg of ritonavir. The recommended dosage is two tablets taken once daily in the morning with a meal for 12 weeks. Ribavirin should be coadministered with Technivie at a daily dose of 1000 mg in patients weighing <75 kg or 1200 mg in those weighing ≥75 kg. Use of Technivie alone may be considered in treatment-naive patients who cannot take or tolerate ribavirin. A 12-week supply of Technivie costs $76,653.7

1. A 4-drug combination (Viekira Pak) for hepatitis C. Med Lett Drugs Ther 2015; 57:15.
2. JP Messina et al. Global distribution and prevalence of hepatitis C virus genotypes. Hepatology 2015; 61:77.
3. A combination of ledipasvir plus sofosbuvir (Harvoni) for hepatitis C. Med Lett Drugs Ther 2014; 56:11.
4. C Hézode et al. Ombitasvir plus paritaprevir plus ritonavir with or without ribavirin in treatment-naive and treatment-experienced patients with genotype 4 chronic hepatitis C virus infection (PEARL-I): a randomised, open-label trial. Lancet 2015; 385:2502.
5. In brief: hepatic injury with hepatitis C drugs. Med Lett Drugs Ther 2015; 57:156.
6. Inhibitors and inducers of CYP enzymes and P-glycoprotein. Med Lett Drugs Ther 2013; 55:e44.
7. Approximate WAC. WAC = wholesaler acquisition cost or manufacturer's published price to wholesalers; WAC represents a published catalogue or list price and may not represent an actual transactional price. Source: AnalySource® Monthly. November 5, 2015. Reprinted with permission by First Databank, Inc. All rights reserved. ©2015 www.fdbhealth.com/policies/drug-pricing-policy.

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The FDA has approved daclatasvir (Daklinza – BMS), an oral direct-acting antiviral drug, for use with sofosbuvir (Sovaldi) for treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 3 infection. Daclatasvir is the first drug approved for this indication that does not require the addition of interferon or ribavirin. It is approved in Japan and Europe in combination with other drugs for treatment of HCV genotypes 1-4.

The FDA has approved a fixed-dose combination (Harvoni [har voe' nee] – Gilead) of sofosbuvir and ledipasvir (led' i pas' vir), two oral direct-acting antiviral agents, for treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1 infection. Genotype 1 is responsible for 70-80% of HCV infections in the US. Sofosbuvir (Sovaldi) was approved earlier for use in combination with other antiviral drugs for treatment of HCV infection. Ledipasvir is a new drug.

The FDA has approved the nucleotide polymerase inhibitor sofosbuvir (Sovaldi – Gilead) for use in combination with other antiviral drugs for treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection.

The FDA has recently approved 2 new drugs for treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Simeprevir (Olysio – Janssen) is the third oral protease inhibitor to be approved for use in combination with peginterferon and ribavirin for treatment of chronic HCV genotype 1 infection in adults with compensated liver disease. Telaprevir (Incivek) and boceprevir (Victrelis) were approved in 2011 for the same indication. Sofosbuvir (Sovaldi – Gilead), a nucleotide analog polymerase inhibitor that has been approved for use with and without interferon for treatment of multiple HCV genotypes, will be reviewed in the next issue of The Medical Letter.

The drugs of choice for treatment of viral infections (other than HIV) and their dosages are listed in Tables 1-6 on the pages that follow. Some of the indications and dosages recommended here have not been approved by the FDA. Vaccines used for the prevention of viral infections are discussed elsewhere.

The CDC is now recommending that everyone in the US born between 1945 and 1965 be tested for hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection.

Telaprevir (Incivek – Vertex) and boceprevir (Victrelis – Merck) have been approved by the FDA for oral use in combination with peginterferon and ribavirin for treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1 infection in adults with compensated liver disease. Both telaprevir and boceprevir were developed specifically to inhibit the NS3/4A proteases that cleave HCV encoded polyproteins of the genotype 1 virus.

The drugs of choice for treatment of non-HIV viral infections and their dosages are listed in Tables 1-6 on the pages that follow. Some of the indications and dosages recommended here have not been approved by the FDA. Vaccines used for the prevention of viral infections are discussed in another issue of Treatment Guidelines.

The drugs of choice for treatment of non-HIV viral infections with their dosages and cost are listed in Tables 1-6. Some of the indications and dosages recommended here have not been approved by the FDA. Vaccines used in the prevention of viral infections are discussed in the "Adult Immunization" issue of Treatment Guidelines.

The drugs of choice for non-HIV viral infections with their dosages and cost are listed in the tables that begin on page 24. Some of the indications and dosages recommended here have not been approved by the FDA.

The choice of drugs for treatment of pneumonia depends on the most likely pathogens causing the infection and local antimicrobial resistance patterns. Factors such as severity of illness, presence of co-morbid conditions and whether the infection is community or hospital-acquired also need to be considered.

The FDA has approved recombinant interferon alfa-2a conjugated to polyethylene glycol (Pegasys - Roche) alone or with oral ribavirin (Copegus - Roche) for treatment of adults with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections not previously treated with interferon alpha. The standard of care for treatment of most patients with hepatitis C has been once-weekly injections of peginterferon alfa-2b (PEG-Intron -Schering) plus oral ribavirin (Rebetol - Schering) (Medical Letter 2001; 43:54).

The single sentence on vaccination site care in our recent article on Smallpox Vaccination (Vol. 45, page 2) needs clarification. In the past, the vaccination site was generally left uncovered, but current plans for Phase I call for it to be covered with both gauze to absorb liquid and a semipermeable membrane such as an Opsite dressing to prevent spread of the virus. This correction has been made in the web version of the issue.

Because of concerns about the possibility of bioterrorism involving smallpox, the US government is reinstituting smallpox vaccination (https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/; www.idsociety.org/bt/toc.htm). Vaccination is currently expected to proceed in three phases: the military and hospital smallpox response teams first, other health care workers, police and firefighters second, and the general public in the third phase. Except for the military, vaccination will be voluntary.

The drugs of choice for non-HIV viral infections with their dosages and cost are listed in the table that begins on the next page. Since the last Medical Letter issue on this subject, some new drugs and some new recommendations for old drugs have been added.

Concerns have arisen anew about possible use of biological weapons. The pathogens considered most likely to be used for this purpose are discussed in this article. A good source for additional information is www.usamriid.army.mil/education/bluebook.html.

Recombinant interferon alfa-2b conjugated to polyethylene glycol (PEG-Intron), the first "pegylated"alpha interferon, has been approved by the FDA for once-a-week monotherapy of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection in patients not previously treated with alpha interferon.

The drugs of choice for non-HIV viral infections with their dosages and cost are listed in the [article's] table.

Rebetron, a combination of injected recombinant interferon alfa-2b with oral ribavirin has been approved by the FDA for treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus infection.

Concerns persist about the possible use of biological weapons. Among the many organisms found in nature that cause serious infections, only a few have the combination of pathogenicity, stability and ease of production needed to make effective biological warefare agents.

The drugs of choice for non-HIV viral infections with their dosages and cost are listed in the table on the next page. The treatment of HIV infection will be discussed in a future issue.

Since the last review of this topic (Medical Letter, 32:73, August 10, 1990) some new antiviral agents have been approved and the indications for several others expanded. The drugs of choice for viral infections are listed in the table on page 36.